INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Positive effect of the IR

• ·       -  Increase in the production of goods for export

·    Great profits were made & this led overall prosperity
·         Job specialization o Emergence of towns & cities as commercial centres. Manchester & Glasgow were industrial towns
·         Business activities gave rise to opening of banks, insurance, companies, shipping agencies, shops etc. 
·         Emergence of capitalist society

Negative effects

• ·         -Home industries suffered, unemployed rural people could not compete with machines. They turned their anger by destroying machines. The attackers came to be called the Lubbites
• ·         Migration of workers from rural to urban centres
• ·         Social problems (no water supply) among urban workers – health, housing etc. poor sanitary condition spread of diseases
• ·         Exploitation of workers both men & women. Long working hours but low pay. (employer want to make profit)
• ·         Use of child labour

• ·         Work sites unsafe & unhealthy
• ·         Workers exposed to accidents, chemical fume, dust & smoke (harmful to them)
• ·         Work sites unsafe & unhealthy
• ·         Hostel provided but just a small room
• ·         Children do not know their parents
• ·         No electric supply, water supply

IMPERIALISME

Imperialisme

Imperialism/ colonialism (19th century) is explained as the control of a country by another. It is a extension of the authority of one country over another. This is carried out by conquest or by treaties & it is often for political & economic reasons. Imperialism has long history. Modern form of imperialism started when European powers discovered new land in Asia & Africa in the 15th & 16th century.

There are many forms of imperialism: colonies, protectorates, spheres of influence.

Colonies – directly governed by Europeans

Protectorates – the native rulers were guaranteed protection against internal upheaval/ external threat. A European resident/ commissioner is appointed to advise the ruler. Spheres of influence where no single European state could make good its claim against others. Here each European power has arranged to divide the region into spheres of influence. Each power enjoys privileges & trade opportunities within its own sphere. - Western imperialism spread fast to Africa & Asia after 1870s. Between 1880-1914 almost all of Africa (except Ethopia & Liberia) were under either French, British, Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish/ Belgium powers).

In Asia, all countries except Thailand was under colonial rule.

·         India, Burma, Malaya+Sabah/ Sarawak, Hong Kong (British)

·         Vietnam, Cambodia, Loas (French)

·         East Indies / Indonesia (Dutch)

·         Philippines (Spanish/ Americans)

Reason for Western Imperialisme of Asia.

Economic

Most important reason. Following IR in Europe there was demand for raw materials such as rubber, tin, timber, cotton, jute, petroleum, coconut etc. To service the factories & industries in west. They were found in Asia & could be got cheap. They were needed to make cloth, tin-sheets, tyres etc. In order to obtain these items in continuous supply, Europeans invested huge sums of capital to set up mines, factories, plantations, roads, railroads, refineries, steamships, banks & trading houses (company). European countries, therefore had huge financial investments in enterprises outside their own countries. All these investments needed protection & one way of ensuring this was by imperialism. Critics have condemned imperialism. To Lenin “imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism”. Another economic factor is colonies could be made regular markets for European finished goods. o Following IR several countries in Europe became rich & had surplus capital.  Money invested in these so called “back-ward countries” brought in higher rate of returns than if invested in their own countries.

Colonies for political & strategic reason

Because of economic & political rivalry between European powers, some countries did not want their colonies to fall into the hands of their enemies. Example, it was fear of French expansion in Burma that forced the British to follow an aggressive policy of annexation of Burma. British feared if French annexed Burma, British interest in India would be affected. British feared if French annexed Burma, British interest in India would be affected. A French reporter once said “there has never been a great power without great colonies”.

Increase in population

Population of Europe had doubled between 1750-1850. This caused pressure on land & jobs. Some nationalist advocated conquest of land to ease population congestion. This led many Europeans to immigrate to US, Australia & New Zealand. More than 60 million people were believed to have left Europe between 1815-1932 to settle in colonies.

Advancement in technology

 The advancement in science & technology helped in speeding imperialism. There was great advancement in shipping & communication in early 19th century which made transportation of goods cheaper & faster. Telegraph service enabled quick business transaction. o Opening up of Suez Canal in 1869, reduced distance between Europe & Asia, thereby reducing transportation costs of goods.

Civilizing non-western world

Some westerners took upon themselves the responsibility of civilizing the non-western world. His was based on the assumption that they were more advanced in science & technology than those in Asia & Africa.

·         English considered this as “White Man’s Burdern”
·         French – “civilizing mission civilisatrice”
·         Germans – “diffusing Kultur”
·         Americans – “blessing of anglosaxon protection”

This factor responsible for ending slavery & improve health & education of people in colonies. Christian missionaries followed this policy in their efforts to spread Christianity

Conclusion

·         Imperialism has left both its positive & negative impact

·         Many European countries became prosperous at the expense of their colonized countries o

·         European language & culture were absorbed by Asians

·         Led to nationalism

1st World War.

1^st World War

1st World War was caused by the culmination (meeting point) of various developments that had been going on in Europe since the congress of Vienna in 1815. WW1, also known as “The Great War” & “ War to End All Wars”, involved Europe, US & Japan.

Causes

Rise of intense nationalism in Europe.

German conquest of the French territories of Alsace Lorraine in 1871 made them arrogant. Germans felt they were a master-race. It was also nationalism that caused naval rivalry between Germany & England. It was the national ambition of Italy to wrest the Italian speaking districts of Trieste & Trentino from Austria. It was also nationalism that caused European powers to squabble over their interests in Asia, Africa & the Balkans.

Military alliances

Bismark the Kaiser (leader) of Germany, under fear of possible attack from France initiated a system of military alliances. In 1879, Germany & Austria-Hungary entered into a treaty called Dual Alliance (Austria-Hungary was an enemy of Russia in the Balkan crisis). Dual Alliance was a secret arrangement to help one another in case of war. In 1882, the Dual Alliance was became Triple Alliance when Italy joined the group. This caused tension, especially to France & Russia. § In 1904, Britain made an agreement on Entente with France to end all hostilities between the two countries  In 1907 Britain, France & Russia formed. A separate diplomatic group known as the Triple Entente. Through a diplomatic group, it also became a power to counter any threat from Germany. The formation of the 2 blocs – Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) & Triple Entente (England, France & Russia) caused great suspicion & tension in Europe.

Military build-up

Germany increased her navy & army. This led England to expand her navy. Russia to adopted a program of army expansion. France increased compulsory military service from 2 to 3 years. This armament race produced fear & hostility among all nations in Europe.

 Imperialism

European imperialism was a constant source of friction among the powers. At that time the greatness of a nation depended not only on its standing in Europe but upon its non-European possessions. England, France & Russia all had colonial empires. Germany had limited possessions. Competition between Germany & France almost led to a war over Morocco.

The Balkan Crisis

Bitter enmity between Austria & Serbia in the Balkans. Bosnia & Herzegovina were provinces akin to Serbia in blood & language & wanted to be part of Serbia. In 1908, Austria conquered Bosnia & Herz. To prevent the expansion of Serbia. Austria also feared that a strong Serbia will also attract. Millions of Croato-Serbs living under Austrian rule. Austria was determined to prevent the expansion of Serbia. The Serbs got the support of Russia in this struggle & the Austria the support of the Germans. This caused further tension in Europe.

Immediate cause

Archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew to the Austrian Emperor (heir to the Throne) & his wife were murdered at Sarajevo in Bosnia on the 28 June 1914 by a Bosnian student. Austria accused Serbia for being behind this murder which Serbia denied. Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. Serbians asked for Russian help. Germans declared war on Russia. Triple Entente was drawn into the conflict.

Events of war

On 4th August 1914, Germans entered Belgium to attack France. As they advanced towards Paris, French & British troops forced the Germans to retreat after the Battle of Marne. In 1914 Turkey & in 1915 Bulgaria & Italy entered the war by siding Germans. In 1914 Japan sided Allies (Britain, France & Russia).

This year 1917 saw 2 important events that profoundly affected the war.

·         Russia revolution (because the government is shaking so be friends with Germany). The Czar was overthrown by extremist the Bolsheviks (communist). They signed a treaty with Germany – Threaty of Brestlitovsk. By this Russia surrendered all her western provinces including Poland to Germany. This enabled Germany to move her troops to the western front

·         United States entered the war. US entry into war was as a protest against unrestricted submarine campaign by Germans in violation of international law

ü  US placed enormous resources of men & money to assist Allies. This stopped German expansion

ü  In November 1918, Germany surrendered & the war ended

·         Peace conference of Paris 1919

ü  Representatives of Allied Powers met at Paris in 1919

ü  President Woodrow Wilson of US presented at 14 point peace settlement

ü  The 1st world war ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919

Effects of war

Loss of territory & military power by Germany. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France. Several German provinces were given to Poland, Denmark & Belgium o Army reduced to 100,000 men. Not to use submarines, cannot import arms. Germany denied trading rights outside her territory.

Emergence of new countries .4 independent countries emerged from the Russia empire – Finland, Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania. From Austrian-Hungary empire emerged Czechoslovakia & Serbia. From the Turkish empire emerged Lebanon, Syria, Iraq & Palestine. Romania & Italy were enlarged.

End of monarchy .Royal dynasties in Russia, Germany & Austria collapsed – democracy introduced. Bolshevik revolution in 1917 ended monarchy in Russia. Lenin introduced communism. Greece abolished monarchy, became republic. In Turkey, Mustafa Kamal Ataturk abolished the Sultanate & Caliphate in 1923.

League of Nations. League of Nations was formed in 1919 to maintain world peace. Its headquarters was at Geneva in Switzerland. However League of Nations could not enforce decisions on big powers.

Rise of nationalism & communism. President Woodraw Wilson’s “Right to self- Determination” spread to Europe & Asia. India & Burma one of the first countries in Asia to seek self-determination. o Self-determination also meant countries could choose the type of government if wanted –democracy/ communism. Communism spread to China & Indochina.

Loss of life .1st World War caused the death of about 10 million soldiers & more than 20 million were Maimed (injured). Another 13 million ordinary people died due to injury, hunger, poor health & lack of medical care. Monetary (money) loss-estimated to have cost about 338 billion of US dollars. 

COLD WAR

Cold War

KEY : 俄美/势力/政治，经济，国际利益分歧/关系紧张/没有正面冲突/其他计划在隐秘进行

            After the end of 2^nd World War, emergence of US of Russia as world powers. Difference in political system, economy &national interest caused strained relationship –Cold War. ‘Term Cold War’ used by American reporters in 1948 to describe the strained relationship between US & Russia. Although there was no direct military clash, the period was marked by military coalitions, arms race deployment of troops, espionage, proxy wars, propaganda and technological competition. Europe was divided into the Eastern (communist)& western (democratic) Bloc.

Source of Cold War.

民主资本VS 社会共产/

            

Political and socioeconomic differences. In US, there is a democracy and belongs human rights capitalist economy and also free from state intervention. In Russia, socialist government based on communist ideology nationalization of economy.

克里米亚/ 选举/ 列宁介绍共产/ 美国在东欧进行选举/ 俄罗斯以结仇威胁/ 协议失败/关系恶化/

            

Differences arising from Yalta & Postdam conferences. In 1945 Feb, Yalta (Crimea) Roosevelt, Stalin & Winston Churchill decided to hold elections in territories under Russian occupation. This was because Stalin wanted to introduce communism in these countries to ensure security of Russia. At the Potsdam conferences (1945) US demanded free elections in the east European countries. Stalin refused on grounds these countries would form anti-Russian governments. So no agreement was reached. This caused strained relationship.

美反对暴力组织的政府/ 铁幕/东德西德/ 划分欧洲/ 美助土耳其希腊对付共产/ 美实行marshall plan/ 资助二战后的西欧/ NATO组成/ 对付俄/ 华沙/ 苏联及东欧/

Major developments during Cold War. May 1945 President Truman (President America) ended aid to Russia. US refused to recognize government formed by force against people’s will. March 1946 churchill informed ‘Iron Curtain’ across Europe. The Iron Curtain was the physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. 1947 US gave financial & military aid to Greece & Turkey to shore support against communism. Truman Doctrine 1947 promised aid as a means to combat communism. 1947 – Marshall plan was introduced to western European countries (aid). By 1948 Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Hungary & Czechoslovakia had communist governments. 1949 Germany divided into East & West. In April 1949, US & eleven western European countries formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). These were Britain, France, Canada, Portugal, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Denmark, Italy, Luxembourg & Iceland. NATO was formed to help one another in the event of a war against Russia . In reaction, communist countries in Europe under Russia formed the Warsaw Pact (Poland) in May 1955 .These include USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary & Romania

远东进展/ 中国加入共产/ 毛泽东VS国民党蒋介石/ 南韩北韩/ 古巴危机/越战/

            Developments in the Far East (In Asia). 1949 China joined the communist Bloc after the Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai Shek was overthrown by Mao Tze Tung. 1950 Korean War broke out with Russia & China supporting North Korea & US supporting South Korea. It ended in 1953 with the Korea peninsula split into 2 Koreas – North & South. In 1964, the Vietnam War began with Soviet Union & China supporting North Vietnam the US supporting South Vietnam. Ended in 1975. 1954 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was formed to check the spread of communism. 1962 US & Russia came close to nuclear war over Cuba. Russia had supplied nuclear arms to Fider Castro of Cuba. Kennedy demanded withdrawal of nuclear arms. Kruscher agreed to withdraw on condition US does not attack Cuba

            In conclusion, During Cold War, US & Russia avoided open confrontation o Both powers however continued their national interest through other means-subversion, spying, propaganda etc. Cold War came to an end in Nov 1990 with the establishment of a more transparent communist government in Russia under Mikhail Gorbacher

FRENCH REVOLUTION

French Revolution

结束君主制度及封建主义/ 结束罗马天主教/

            The French revolution is an important point in the history of Europe. The revolution had ended Feudalism and absolute monarchy. Furthermore, this ended influence of Catholic Church on government. For the most important, French revolution had dividing line between old era and new era in Europe.

 Causes of French Revolution

社会组织/ 三种城市/第一级： 牧师，主教，祭师/ 免税/ 权利，受尊敬的/

The first is the structure of the French society. The society had divided to the 3 states : First, Second, and Third Estate. First state was made up of the clergy (pastor)- those connected with the church- bishops and priests. They were rich and powerful, respected, owned land and property and controlled the institutions of government. Population of France was about 23 million and the  First state was made up of less than 100,000 people. They were exempted from paying taxes.

领主贵族/

 The second estate was made up of nobles & lords (400,000). In the earlier times French was made up of several small districts, each under lords/ nobles. Later when it became united under a single kingdom, these lords & nobles were given titles & land & were given positions in the government, 3/5 of the land was under control. They paid no tax.

平民/ 没有政治权利/需缴税/ 受苦的群体/

Third estate – all those who did not belong to the first & second estate were classified under the third estate. These include peasants, farmers, tradesmen, businessmen & professionals like teachers, lawyers, doctors & others. Members of the 3rd estate had to pay tax but had no political rights. The poor who formed the majority suffered the most.

Government of Louis XVI weak

霸权/无能/

Louis XVI became king in 1774. He was weak, despotic & could not control his advisors. His wife Marie Antoinette was disliked by the people. The king even claimed “the state is myself”. He abused his power by arresting & imprisoning those who went against him.

Economic crisis 1787-1797

经济危机/收割坏/ 粮食短缺/ 贵族资金问题/税越来越高/

Although the economy of the country was generally good but there were periods of severe economic crisis, especially between 1787-1797, when harvest was poor, causing shortage of food & this affected farmers badly (price of flour + many fold). Nobles experienced cash-flow problem. So they taxed the peasants even more.

Enlightenment, intellectual movement (1770-1790)

智力运动/ 限制政府权力来释放人民自由/ 政府必须于人民/符合/人民能换政府/

The spread of new ideas by the Intellectual Movement. Voltaire (1694-1778), his book “Philosophical Letters” (1733) which upheld the principle of freedom to think, talk, religion & government based on law.  Monstesquieu (1689-1755) who wrote “The Spirit of the Laws” (1748) believed that freedom of the people could be assured by limiting the powers of the government through laws. His famous doctrine is the doctrine on the “separation of powers” – Legislative, Executive & Judiciary. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) his ideas on Government is found in his book. “The Social Contract” (1762). He stressed the government should be based on the will of the people. The government must fulfill its contract with the people. If they failed the people have the right to replace it. All these philosophers became an inspiration to the people.

Influence of the American War of Independence (1775-1783)

被美国独立激发/ 民主意识/

French Revolution was also inspired by the American War of independence. One of the leaders of the FR was Marquis de Lafayette who had taken part in the American War against the English. Other French soldiers who were also inspired by the democratic ideas advocated by the Americans.

Immediate cause

2线城市也要赋税/ 贵族不满/ 示威/

Financial crisis, King wanted nobles (2 estate) to pay tax. New parliament met on 5 May 1789. 3 rd estate met on 5 May 1789 of the population was unhappy o With voting system. 17 June 1789 members from 3rd estate formed the National Assembly. 20th June 1789 – members of National Assembly took oath for the tennis court – “Tennis Court Oath”. King Louis XVI tried to suppress the Assembly. Demonstrations & riots broke out in Paris.

Effects of the revolution

结束封建/权利不能给教会/ 共和国/ 强烈爱国主义/ 威胁了其他欧洲/

·         Ended feudal system, peasants free, could own land

·         Privileges enjoyed by nobles, priests & church abolished

·         France became a Republic based on written constitution

·         United with strong feelings of Nationalism

·         Revolution threatened the rest of Europe

Explain what French society was?

·         Because of the French society
·         Divided into 3 estate
·         1st estate – connecting to the church, own property, collect tax from other, represent religion, king should be obeyed them
·         2nd estate – origin – France made up from small kingdom, fight each other, noble become powerful, doesn’t need to pay tax, take part in government (political)
·         3rd estate – the rest include all kind of people, 95% population but need to pay tax, pay double tax (government tax, 1st & 2nd estate tax, and church), the farmer will be affected, hate 1st and 2nd estate, felt this is wrong

REFORMATION

Reformation

Basically, reformation is a movement to reform the Christian religion in Europe. It took place between 1510-1550 (40 years).  In that time, men began to question the practice and administration of the Catholic Church. This led up a breakup of the church into 20 groups – Roman Catholics and Protestants. The protestants came up with their own teachings and practices.

            There were 3 groups of people who were against the Catholic Church. First, the ordinary people. They were dissatisfied  with the administration of the church and who saw the bishops and abbots as part of a wealthy oppressive(压迫) ruling class. Second, the educated people middle class in various European cities who felt that the church hierarchy was feudal and that they could manage the affairs of their cities. The church was powerful and they even involved into the politics of the state. The decision of a state must have the permission from the church. Third, King and princes who had long disputed the powers of the church on matters of property, taxes, legal jurisdiction(法律管辖权) and political influence. The rulers wanted to be masters of their own land and be free from any interference from the church.

 Martin Luther

After the long disputation was occurred, a man of emerged in Germany- Martin Luther. He is the starter of the reformation movement, a priest and professor from Wittenberg University, Germany. He asked Christian to follow the teachings of Christ as found in the Bible and not follow blindly the instructions of the Church.  He insisted that their church be administrated by the presbyters (eldest brother). The church came to be known as the Presbyterian Church. His ideas spread to Hungary, Poland, Bohemia and Scotland.

John Calvin

John Calvin was a Frenchmen, a trained priest & lawyer. He fled to Switzerland to practice his teachings. Calvin like Luther insisted that true Christians should follow the bible. He urged his followers to work hard & earn their living through honest ways. o Calvin rejected the institution of the bishops/ priests as practiced by the Catholics, Lutherans/ Anglicans. He insisted that their church be administered by presbyters (elders). Their church came to be known as the Presbyterian church. His ideas spread to Hungary, Poland & Bohemia & Scotland.

Reformation in England.

            In England, the king took advantage of the Reformation movement to free his country from control of the Roman Catholic Church. King Henry VIII wanted to divorced his wife Catherime (as he had no male heir). When the pope refused permission, he called the Parliament to pass the ‘Act of Supremacy’ (自尊法案)which declared him as head of the church of England. All his subjects were asked to acknowledge the King as head of Church and not the pope. Henry closed all the monasteries in England and seized all land belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. His church came to be known as the Church of England or Anglican Church. By 1560, the protestants movement had been affirmed. The unity of the Roman Catholic Church had been broken. Although the protestants differed in many ways but they also had many things in common. All rejected Papal authority. The reformation movement had a profound effect on the European society. Religiously Europe was divided into 2 blocs- Catholics and Protestants. Italy, France, Spain & Portugal remain staunchly catholic state. Protestant churches replaced Latin with the Vernacular languages. All declared the one true source of the Christian belief was the bible.